Many of us associate; personality theory with developmental theory. For psychoanalysis in particular this makes sense since so much importance is attached to an individual's life history. Developmental theories do not deny heredit3.ry factors, but rather emphasiLe personal cxperienr;e. And again when we think of personality, chances are we think in terms of types and traits and the styles of behavior people show. When we think of the complexities of personality and all that it includes, we can see how useful it is to devise some systematic way of looking at it. The first theory we will consider is the psychoanalytic theory. Whether we disown this theory, endorse it, or accept it with reservations, We should recognize that it is one of the major influences on the twentieth century. It nas colored not on.!y the study of behavior, both as a science and as a profession, but also our philosophy, literature, art, drama, and our ways of looking at ourselves.
Psychoanalytic Theory
In brief, psychoanalytic theory sees th~ 'vorking of our minds and emotions as a produ.::t of the dynamic interaction between our instincts and the counterforces set up by the external environrl1ent. As a method of psychotherapy developed by Freud it involves uncovering the individual's conflicts, repressed memories, sexual hangups, and many such difficulties. Its aim is to help t:1e individual understand and reeducate llimself or herself.
Freud developed the psychoanalytic theory from the study of poorly adjusted people. He saw the primary source of behavior as sexual with the ger.erating energy being what he called the libido, an instinctive pleasure-seeking drivp. The term "sexual" here refers to any type of physically plea'Surable activity. As for personality, Freudian theory divides the personality structure into the id (a division of the psyche from which come impersonal impulses that demand immediate gratification); the ego ("the self" that is in contact with the external world); and the superego (the conscience, or moral standards of society). The theory deals with personality development caught up in all its' conflicts as we pass through the various stages from infancy to old age. As both theory and practice, psychoanalysis has undergone many changes by such analysts as Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, and Karen Horney.
Adler .gave emphasis to the universal feeling of inferiority, stressing the social rather than the biological determinants of personality. For him, the prime source of motivation is the innate striving :or superiority, to "perfect oneself." Jung introduced the dimension of in troversion-extroveTsion which has led to the identification of such factors as social introversion, thinking introversion, and depression on the one hand, and the happy-go-lucky mood on the other. Jung described the introvert as being subjective with an interest in ideas and a lively imagination; he may be sensitive and idealistic. The extrovert was described as oriented toward the world of things and events, tough-minded, realistic, and practical. But the division be:ween the two personalities was never meant to be rigid. Most people are a blend of extrovert and introvert.
Fromm says man is a product of society. When he cannot cope with society he suffers, becomes unreasonable. He emphasized that social conditions reach beyond family influences, a good society being one in which human needs are met and despair is avoided. Social systems thus help form personality. Horney brought in an emphasis on compliant, aggressive, and detached types of people; she makes anxiety the' basic concept rather than the sexual and aggressive :mpulses descriced by Freud. Man has "neurotic neerls" for affection. and approval, for self-sufficiency and independence. They are neurotic in the sense that tbey come to dominate the person.
Type Theories
It seems natural, even if incorrect, to classify people as though they came out of some mold. Early theories of personality as determined by body build are oversimplified for modern psychology although there are residuals of such thinking. Sheldon speaks of the round, soft person as an "endomorph," one who is fond of food, apprehensive, insecure, and conformist. The "mesomorph," in whom muscle and bone predominates, is characterized as the adventurous type who can withstand discomfort. The nonadvenrurous "ectomorph" is fragile in body build. Controversy about such classifications has stimulated much research. Freud has spoken of the "erotic" type, gregarious and self-dramatizing; the "obsessional" type, critical and skeptical; and the "narcissistic," or self-satisfied, type. He regarded these types as normal modes of adjustment, but when adaptation failed, they could become maladjusted.
Trait Theory
The use of such descriptive terms as happy, resourceful, aggresfive, and dependent is a common way of talking about personality. Such traits, or typical ways of behaving, go into many descriptions. In the English language alone, some 18,000 tenns have been compiled that serve to distinguish people behaviorally. According to trait theory personality can be described by its position on a number of scales, each of which represents one trait. We have both common traits by which we compare one person with another and personal dispositions that give each of us individuality. The trait approach to the study of personality lends itself to experimentation where. traits are reactions, not something a person possesses. One psychologist emphasizes that "it is important for the student of personality that when psychologists describe personality in tenns of traits or types, they may be using identical tenninology but may have completely different theories as to what traits exist and how these traits are organized within the individual."
